Pluralism of Pathways, Unity of Criteria: A Genealogical Analysis of Non-Western Knowledge Systems in the L1–L7 Epistemic Spectrum

ABSTRACT The perennial demarcation problem in philosophy of science stems from the futile quest for a binary criterion to separate science from non-science. This paper proposes a genealogical resolution by applying Yohanes’s (2026) seven-tier epistemic spectrum (L1–L7) to two major non-Western knowledge systems: Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and the Subak water management system of Bali. We argue that scientific legitimacy is not defined by conformity to a specific method but by a system’s functional capacity to navigate critical transitions within the spectrum—particularly from methodological debate (L3) to operational stabilization (L4) and from empirical validation (L5) to generative research (L6). Through comparative analysis, we show that TCM exemplifies a Holistic Strategy, achieving stabilization through textual canonization and validation through cumulative clinical efficacy. Subak exemplifies a Practical-Adaptive Strategy, achieving stabilization through ritualized social protocols and validation through demonstrated socio-ecological resilience. Both satisfy the universal functional criteria of mature science, albeit through pathways distinct from the reductionist Revolutionary Strategy dominant in Western narratives. The paper synthesizes these findings into a framework for a cosmopolitan epistemology, addressing philosophical challenges regarding generativity and validation, and concludes that the unity of science lies in the diversity of its legitimate pathways.