The Figure of the Devil Across Cultures : A Comparative Study of Representations of Evil in Religion and Modernity

Abstract This study offers a comparative analysis of the evolution of representations of evil, from ancient polytheisms (Mesopotamia, Greece, Hinduism) to the Abrahamic monotheisms (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), and their modern reinterpretations. Drawing on textual sources (Sumerian tablets, the Mahābhārata, the Bible, the Qur’an) and iconographic materials (the Last Judgment of Chartres, medieval illuminations), we show that the figure of the “devil”, whether manifested as demons, asura, Satan, or Iblis, reflects the social structures, collective anxieties, and systems of power of each era. In polytheistic systems, evil is integrated into the cosmic order, whereas monotheistic traditions personify it as a singular adversary, legitimizing mechanisms of social control (the Inquisition, witch hunts). Modernity secularizes this figure, transforming it into a symbol of rebellion or an allegory of contemporary fears. The analysis of the weighing of souls scene (west portal of Chartres Cathedral, 13th century) illustrates this medieval crystallization of evil as both a theological and political tool. We conclude that the devil, far from being a merely religious entity, functions as a mirror of societies, revealing their mechanisms of normativity, transgression, and the search for meaning. Keywords Social devil, medieval demonology, Cathars Ecclesia diaboli, witchcraft sabbath, Malleus Maleficarum, Caligastia Urantia, Church of Satan (LaVey), The Satanic Temple (TST), Gothic iconography (Chartres), Inquisition, Fourth Lateran Council