Conservation and Restoration of Mangroves to Increase Carbon Stocks — A Critical Review

Abstract Mangrove ecosystems store disproportionately large amounts of carbon per hectare because of high primary productivity combined with deep, anoxic soils that accumulate organic matter. Conserving intact mangroves prevents large, immediate carbon losses from soil oxidation and biomass removal, while restoration can recover aboveground carbon and re-establish sedimentary carbon burial over time—but soil recovery is slow and uncertain. This critical review evaluates the biophysical mechanisms that make mangroves valuable carbon stocks, contrasts conservation vs restoration outcomes for carbon, examines restoration approaches and their limitations, and outlines governance, measurement, and policy need to ensure real, durable climate benefits. Keywords: Mangrove forests; mangrove plant species; biodiversity inventory; species composition; coastal ecosystems; conservation priorities; floristic surveys.