Emerging infectious diseases: global spread and international monitoring

Emerging infectious diseases represent a growing challenge to global health, intensified by accelerated mobility, environmental change, urbanization, and expanding human–animal interactions. Modern interconnectedness facilitates the rapid dissemination of pathogens across continents, transforming localized outbreaks into global crises. Past epidemics, including severe acute respiratory syndrome, the 2009 influenza pandemic, Ebola virus disease, and COVID-19, illustrate the structural vulnerabilities of international monitoring systems and global health governance. This study aimed to analyze the key drivers of the global spread of emerging infectious diseases and to critically assess the effectiveness of current international monitoring frameworks in mitigating these threats. A narrative literature review with a descriptive and critical analytical approach was conducted using major biomedical databases and institutional documents. Publications addressing determinants of disease emergence, surveillance systems, governance mechanisms, and conceptual linkages between Global Health Security, Universal Health Coverage, and One Health were included. Thematic content analysis was performed across structural, institutional, and governance domains. Findings indicate that despite technological advancements in surveillance, persistent fragilities such as fragmented governance, inconsistent data sharing, financing asymmetries, and limited compliance with international regulatory instruments continue to undermine coordinated global responses. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed misalignments between global health security agendas and national health system capacities. Evidence supports the integration of primary health care, universal health coverage, and One Health principles as foundational pillars for resilient preparedness. In conclusion, effective mitigation of emerging infectious diseases requires structural reform of international monitoring frameworks, strengthened national health systems, multisectoral coordination, and sustained equitable investment in prevention oriented global health governance.