The Technological and Scientific Evolution of Forensic Footwear Analysis: A Narrative Review

The forensic discipline of footwear analysis is currently navigating a period of profound transition as the field evolves from an experience-based craft into a technologically sophisticated and data-driven science (Adair, 2010). This paradigm shift was largely precipitated by critical international evaluations, most notably from the National Research Council (2009) and the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (2016), which questioned the foundational validity of subjective pattern-comparison methods (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2016). This comprehensive review examines the global evolution of the discipline, tracing the shift from traditional, destructive recovery methods like dental stone casting toward non-invasive digital capture technologies such as Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and 3D laser scanning (Thompson & Norris, 2018). It highlights the landmark 2022 Noblis black-box study, which provided the first large-scale empirical data on footwear examiner error rates, recording a false positive rate of only 0.2% among qualified practitioners (Hicklin et al., 2022). Furthermore, the review explores the Indian forensic landscape, detailing the historical significance of traditional trackers known as "Pagis" and analyzing how recent biometric studies on regional Indian populations are strengthening the scientific basis for human identification (Krishan et al., 2011). Legal admissibility standards are discussed through the lens of international frameworks like the Daubert standard and the recent Indian legislative reforms under the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam 2023 (Academy Standards Board, 2025). By adhering to current Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) standards and maintaining a strict digital chain of custody, the footwear community ensures that its evidence remains a reliable instrument for justice globally (Roy, 2025).