Volatile Metabolome of Camel Urine Concentrate (Camelus dromedarius): A Comprehensive GC-MS Analysis Revealing a Reservoir of Bioactive Compounds with Ethnopharmacological Relevance

Abstract: The urine of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) holds a significant placein traditional medicine across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, with historical applicationsspanning dermatological, infectious, gastrointestinal ailments, and notably, cancer. Despite itslongstanding ethnopharmacological use, the detailed chemical composition underpinning itspurported bioactivity remains poorly characterized, hindering scientific validation andstandardization.Aim of the study: This study aimed to perform a comprehensive, high-resolution GasChromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of camel urine concentrate (CUC) toestablish its volatile and semi-volatile metabolomic profile, identify potential bioactiveconstituents, and provide a chemical basis for its traditional medicinal uses.Materials and methods: Fresh urine was aseptically collected from six healthy maledromedary camels in Sokoto, Nigeria, pooled, and concentrated via gentle dehydration. Theresulting semi-solid concentrate was subjected to solvent extraction (n-hexane/diethyl ether).The derivatized extract was analyzed using GC-MS with a 30 m capillary column and a massrange of m/z 50–550. Compound identification was achieved by comparing mass spectra withthe NIST14 library and literature data.Results: The GC-MS analysis identified and characterized 40 distinct volatile and semi-volatileorganic compounds. The metabolome was dominated by lipid-derived compounds, with fattyacid esters constituting the most abundant class. Dodecanoic acid esters were the predominantcomponents, accounting for approximately 10.48% of the total ion chromatogram area. Othersignificant bioactive compounds identified included the monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid(0.37%), saturated fatty acids n-hexadecanoic acid (0.07%) and octadecanoic acid (0.06%), andthe monoterpenoid isopulegol (0.19%). The profile also featured aromatic hydrocarbons,phenolics, and nitrogenous compounds. The chemical diversity observed aligns with the uniquerenal physiology and water conservation adaptations of the camel.Conclusion: This study presents the first detailed, high-resolution GC-MS profile ofconcentrated camel urine, revealing a complex and unique metabolome rich in compounds withestablished pharmacological potential. The identification of fatty acid esters, terpenoids, andphenolic compounds provides a tangible chemical scaffold to explain the broad-spectrumethnopharmacological claims associated with camel urine, particularly its anticancer,antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory uses. This chemical blueprint is essential for futurestandardization, quality control, and bioactivity-guided isolation studies.