Advances in bone tissue engineering and three-dimensional printing: Current strategies and future perspectives in orthopaedics

Bone defects resulting from trauma, infection, tumor resection, or congenital malformations remain prevalent and challenging in orthopedic practice, particularly in the repair of large segmental defects and complex anatomical sites where conventional surgical approaches have limitations. Recent advances in tissue engineering combined with three-dimensional (3D) printing technology have introduced novel strategies for personalized and precise bone regeneration. By integrating biocompatible scaffolds, osteogenic cells, and bioactive factors, and leveraging 3D printing to fabricate scaffolds that conform to patient-specific anatomical and functional requirements, this approach is progressively transitioning from experimental research to clinical application. This review summarizes recent progress in this field, focusing on commonly used materials, printing techniques, and clinical applications in craniofacial, spinal, and long bone reconstruction. With ongoing technological refinement and multidisciplinary collaboration, the integration of tissue engineering and 3D printing is poised to play an increasingly pivotal role in orthopedic practice, ushering in a new era of individualized and precise bone defect repair.