Prevalence, risk factors, and innovative therapies for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in livestock and companion animals in Pakistan

(MRSA) is a significant public health concern because of its zoonotic potential and multidrug resistance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the prevalence of MRSA in livestock and companion animals in Pakistan, emphasizing its molecular epidemiology and resistance mechanisms. MRSA has been detected in bovine mastitis, raw milk, meat, and companion animals, with alarming rates across species and regions. Risk factors include poor hygiene, inappropriate antibiotic use, and close human-animal interactions, all of which contribute to its spread at the animal-human-environment interface. Advanced diagnostic tools such as polymerase chain reaction and chromogenic media tests have facilitated rapid and accurate MRSA detection. The review also highlights alternative treatment strategies, including the use of medicinal plants, bacteriophage therapy, nanoparticles, and probiotics, as promising options to combat MRSA infections. Implementation of stringent hygiene measures, prudent antibiotic use, and further research into vaccines are critical for controlling MRSA in animals and safeguarding public health.