Digital competences in basic education during COVID-19: a review of empirical studies

This study reviews empirical research on the development and integration of digital competences in primary and secondary education during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim was to examine how digital competences were conceptualized, developed, and assessed, which frameworks were most frequently applied, and what lessons can be drawn for the post-pandemic consolidation of digital education. A systematic search in Web of Science and Scopus identified 25 studies published between 2020 and 2023 across Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Each article was coded for publication year, country or region, participants and sample size, frameworks or theoretical models employed, and reported findings. The analysis was guided by Saldaña's (2021) coding strategies, which supported the identification of recurrent patterns and emergent categories. Results reveal inequalities in infrastructure and access, fragmented teacher training, and inconsistent use of frameworks such as DigCompEdu and UNESCO's ICT Competency Framework for Teachers. At the same time, the studies highlight how educators and students developed adaptive strategies, including pedagogical innovation, self-directed learning, and collaborative peer networks. These findings underscore the need for equitable resource distribution, situated professional development, and common instruments and frameworks to ensure comparability across diverse contexts. Overall, the review suggests that consolidating digital education beyond the pandemic calls for future research and practice that address systemic inequities, align competence frameworks with training, and strengthen collaborative educational ecosystems.