Synergistic effects of interconnectivity among coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves under climate change

The interconnectivity among coral reefs, seagrass ecosystems, and mangroves (CSM) forms a critical ecological continuum that sustains biodiversity, enhances resilience to environmental stressors, and supports coastal communities. This study reviews the synergistic interactions between these interconnected ecosystems under climate change, highlighting their importance in carbon sequestration, ocean acidification, shoreline protection, and biodiversity conservation. We examine how cross-ecosystem fluxes of organisms, nutrients, and energy enhance resistance and recovery to climate stressors, including ocean acidification, sea level rise, and marine heat waves. Despite their critical role, these ecosystems face significant vulnerability, and their continued decline poses a direct threat to coastal resilience and ecosystem services. The review emphasizes the necessity of maintaining habitat connectivity, which is integral to species survival and ecosystem function. A comprehensive conservation strategy is proposed, advocating for a polycentric governance model to address the complexities of CSM interactions, incorporating multiple stakeholders to promote sustainable management and policy coordination. Critical research gaps are identified, particularly in understanding the underappreciated role of seagrasses in marine conservation and the poorly understood spillover effects between CSM ecosystems. The study calls for a unified, evidence-based approach to coastal management that enhances the resilience of CSM ecosystems, mitigates climate impacts, and ensures the long-term sustainability of these invaluable systems for future generations.