Soil Degradation and Restoration Techniques: Erosion, Nutrient Depletion, Salinization, Pollution, and Sustainable Recovery

AbstractSoil degradation is a critical global challenge that undermines agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and sustainable development. Key degradation processes include erosion, nutrient depletion, salinization, and contamination by heavy metals and pesticides. These processes are driven by land use change, intensive agriculture, deforestation, and climate extremes, with particularly severe impacts in tropical and arid regions. A suite of restoration techniques—including biochar application, organic amendments (e.g., compost), mulching, vegetative cover, and agroforestry—has been developed to restore soil function and enhance resilience. This narrative review synthesizes major soil degradation mechanisms, discusses sources and impacts of soil pollution, and reviews scientifically validated restoration strategies. Drawing on peer-reviewed literature indexed in Google Scholar, the review highlights mechanisms of degradation and recovery, evaluates the effectiveness of restoration techniques, and identifies knowledge gaps for future research and policy.Keywords: soil degradation, erosion, nutrient depletion, salinization, soil pollution, biochar, compost, mulching, agroforestry, restoration