Supplementary Table 1

Milk replacer feeding schedule for calves until the age of 30 weeks, including concentration (g/L), daily milk volume intake (L/day), and corresponding gross energy (GE) intake (Mcal/day). From the first until the last day, milk replacer concentration ranged from 70 to 200 g/L and volume increased from 4 to 16 L/day. Daily feeding levels increased gradually over time. ‘Start’, ‘mid’, and ‘end’ milk replacers were provided during weeks 3-8, 10-23, and 25-28, respectively. During week 9 and 24, the preceding and subsequent milk replacers were mixed to ensure a smooth transition