From Quantum Fluctuations to Entropy Increase: A Reconsideration of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

The traditional interpretation of the Casimir effect relies on virtual particles and temporary energy borrowing, which conflicts with energy conservation. This paper proposes a consistent model in which vacuum fluctuations produce positive–negative mass particle pairs with total energy exactly zero. The model naturally explains the material dependence and electrical response of the Casimir effect, and provides a microscopic mechanism for thermal radiation. When extended to cosmology, it yields a singularity-free symmetric universe that explains cosmic voids, large-scale structure, gravitational lensing, and light speed variations. In this framework, entropy increase is the macroscopic result of continuous creation, interaction, and neutralization of positive–negative mass pairs. The model therefore offers a self-consistent way to reinterpret the second law of thermodynamics without cosmic heat death.