SPERM DNA FRAGMENTATION AS A BIOMARKER OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE DYSFUNCTION

Fertilization and the development of healthy progeny depend on the integrity of the DNA in the sperm. Later in spermatogenesis, the spermatozoon's nucleus goes through a lot of molecular remodeling, which makes it more compact and safeguards the genetic material. Male infertility and unfavorable reproductive outcomes may be linked to sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF). Reduced rates of natural conception, recurrent pregnancy loss, and poor results in assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as IUI, IVF, and ICSI have all been linked to elevated SDF levels. Enhanced SDF can be caused by a myriad of internal and external causes, such as varicocele, advanced paternal age, lengthy periods of abstinence, smoking, and alcohol intake, radiation from the environment, infections, metabolic problems, and oxidative stress. Evaluation of SDF may provide useful information in some therapeutic situations due to the mounting evidence connecting it with reproductive success. To develop standardized testing techniques and treatment strategies, however, further large-scale controlled trials are needed.