Revisiting genetic associations with educational outcomes during and after the Soviet era in Estonia

Abstract The origins of individual differences in socioeconomic outcomes, including educational attainment and occupational status, reflect a combination of genetic and environmental factors whose relative contributions may differ across historical contexts. Previous research suggested a doubling of the relative role of genetics in explaining variation in these traits in independent Estonia compared with the Soviet era. Using the Estonian Biobank, now tenfold larger than at the time of the original study, we aimed to replicate and extend these findings. We found converging evidence that the relative contribution of genetic factors to educational attainment, but not to occupational status, was higher in the post-Soviet era, although the differences were smaller than previously reported and varied across analytical approaches. However, analyses using narrower birth cohorts revealed a more complex pattern, with the relative genetic contribution to educational attainment decreasing gradually across successive cohorts. Thus, while the Soviet-to-post-Soviet transition was associated with an increase in the relative role of genetic factors in explaining individual differences in educational attainment, it represents only one component of the broader historical changes that have shaped genetic associations with educational attainment in Estonia over the last century.