Unveiling the Toxicological and Allelopathic Effects of Pteridium aquilinum : Chemical Profiling and Biological Assays

Abstract The fern Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) is among the world most widespread plants and poses serious ecological and health risks due to the presence of illudane glycosides (IGs), carcinogenic compounds that particularly affect grazing livestock. This study determined the presence of IGs in plant extracts and in water samples from the Asturias region (northern Spain), an area characterized by intensive cattle farming, and assessed the genotoxic potential, and allelopathic effects of these samples. The glycosides ptaquiloside (PTA) and ptesculentoside (PTE), together with the degradation products pterosin A and pterosin B, were quantified in in vitro -cultured gametophytes and young sporophytes, spring-collected croziers, and autumn water samples from several bracken-infested sites. All sampling locations contained IGs in both plant and water samples, with particularly high concentrations of PTA detected in croziers from Brana Vieja (Somiedo), where cattle deaths had been reported. In vivo genotoxicity assays, using Drosophila melanogaster , revealed induction of somatic mutations and recombination events by aqueous plant extracts and of somatic mutations by water samples. The genotoxic activity of plant extracts, but not that of water samples, was associated with pterosins A and B. Moreover, comet assays in cultured human cells confirmed the genotoxic activity of plant extracts. Unexpectedly, allelopathic bioassays indicated a possible phytostimulatory rather than inhibitory effect of bracken extracts on the germination of meadow species. These findings underscore the widespread presence and biological activity of bracken in northern Spain and highlight the urgent need for management strategies to mitigate the ecological and toxicological threats posed by bracken proliferation.