Global Levels and Trends in Child Discipline: Evidence from 88 Countries, 2005–2023

ABSTRACT Background Home disciplinary practices shape children’s health and development. Yet, comprehensive, up-to-date global evidence on their levels, trends, and socioeconomic and regional inequalities remains limited. This study provides the first global prevalence estimates of both violent and non-violent forms of discipline, examining regional disparities, variations by child and family characteristics, and changes over time. Methods We drew from 176 nationally-representative Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys, collected between 2005 and 2023 across 83 low- and middle-income and 5 high-income countries (N= 1,544,000 1-14y-olds). We estimated weighted prevalence estimates for all types of discipline (exclusively or only non-violent, physical and severe physical punishment, emotional violence, exclusively or only physical punishment, exclusively or only emotional violence, both physical and emotional violence). Disparities by child age, sex, residence, maternal education, household wealth, and world regions were computed. We also assessed changes over time for countries with multiple surveys. Results Only 19.1% of children experienced exclusively non-violent discipline; 55.0% and 12.7% physical and severe physical punishment; and 64.0% emotional violence. Violent discipline was highest among 6-9y-olds, in Sub-Saharan Africa, and in poorer households. Sex differences were more limited. Use of only non-violent discipline slightly increased in 26 countries, while physical and emotional violence decreased in 33 and 31 countries, respectively. Yet, in some countries, violent discipline increased over time. Conclusions Despite policy efforts to increase its use, exclusive non-violent discipline remains low, and violent methods are widespread. Targeted and context-specific interventions for specific age groups and poorer households curb violence exposure at home.