Dopamine ramps as a normative consequence of dual-process control

1 Abstract Midbrain dopamine neurons are thought to implement a temporal difference (TD) reward prediction error (RPE) that updates cached values stored in striatum. This has been challenged by evidence that dopamine “ramps up” to predictable rewards during goal-directed behaviour. Here, we propose that dopamine ramps are RPEs generated by a dual-process learning system in which values inferred using a world model train cached values via the RPE. Ramps arise because efficient training of cached values requires that inferred values contribute to the update target but not the prediction component of the RPE. The model reproduces key dopamine ramp phenomena, including learning dynamics on fast and slow timescales, global updates following changes in reward expectation, transient responses during unexpected state transitions, and sensitivity to state uncertainty manipulations. We therefore argue that dopamine ramps are a signature of interactions between inferred and cached values that revise the traditional dichotomy between model-based and model-free learning.