The Dark Side of the Energy Transition: A Pressure and Release Model Analysis of Artisanal Cobalt Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Cobalt has emerged as a critical mineral in the global transition toward low-carbon energy systems, particularly due to its role in lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. While this transition is frequently framed as environmentally sustainable, far less attention has been paid to the social and structural vulnerabilities embedded within cobalt supply chains, especially in artisanal mining contexts. Existing studies tend to address labor abuses, environmental degradation, or governance failures in isolation, leaving a gap in understanding how these factors interact systemically within the energy–climate–mining nexus. This study addresses this gap by applying the Pressure and Release (PAR) Model to examine how global demand for “clean energy” cobalt intersects with historical extraction patterns, weak institutions, and contemporary political–economic pressures to produce vulnerability in artisanal cobalt mining communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Using qualitative analysis of secondary data from geological reports, policy documents, public health studies, and supply-chain investigations, the study analyzes root causes (such as corruption and extractive economic legacies), dynamic pressures (including institutional weakness and foreign dependency), and unsafe conditions (child labor, toxic exposure, and community health risks). The findings demonstrate that the energy transition, while climate-motivated, reproduces structural vulnerabilities in mining regions by intensifying demand without addressing underlying social and governance failures. By illuminating how climate-driven mineral demand translates into localized risk and exploitation, the PAR Model provides a critical framework for understanding why “clean” energy systems can generate socially unsustainable outcomes. The study contributes to energy and environmental justice scholarship by highlighting the need for supply-chain accountability, equitable governance, and structural reform as integral components of a just energy transition.