Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Lifespan neurobiology, functional outcomes, and an evidence-based multimodal treatment framework

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent neurodevelopmental condition that persists across the lifespan and is associated with measurable cognitive and functional impairments. Contemporary research supports ADHD as a network-level disorder involving disrupted fronto-striatal and fronto-parietal circuits, altered executive control dynamics, and dysregulated catecholaminergic signaling. While stimulant medications remain first-line for symptom reduction, treatment decisions increasingly rely on broader outcomes such as real-world injury risk, psychosocial functioning, and quality of life. In parallel, growing evidence supports adjunctive strategies such as structured exercise programs, yoga-based interventions, phytotherapy candidates, neurofeedback, and non-invasive brain stimulation approaches, although effect sizes and methodological quality vary. The evidence collectively favors a multimodal and individualized care model aimed at improving both symptom severity and daily-life performance, while highlighting key research gaps regarding durability of treatment effects and differential responsiveness across patient subgroups.