A Century with Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Assessing the Continual Threat to African Livestock 1924 – 2024

Foot and mouth disease remains one of the most significant constraints on livestock production and rural livelihoods in Africa. This systematic review examined one hundred years of evidence to understand the factors that sustain transmission and to assess the effectiveness of diagnostics, vaccination strategies, and governance structures. The objective was to provide a comprehensive synthesis of how foot and mouth disease continues to affect animal health, household welfare, and national economies through this systematic review.