The Unyielding Burden: Epidemiological Trends of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Africa over 100 Years

This systematic review combined 100 years (1924–2024) of research to identify long-term patterns in FMD distribution, serotype circulation, ecological factors, and cross-border spread throughout the continent (Africa). The reliability of the domain of data sources assessed the credibility, representativeness, and methodological robustness of the data, including the use of validated laboratory methods or well-established field sampling systems. Each domain was scored on a three-point ordinal scale: 2 = adequate (meets all quality criteria), 1 = partial (meets some criteria but has minor limitations), 0 = inadequate (does not meet the criteria). A maximum total score of 12 was possible for each study, and the cumulative scores were converted into percentages for comparability. Articles were classified as high quality (≥75%), moderate quality (50–74%), or low quality (