The Decline of the Shakers: Evidence from the United States Census

THE SHAKERS HAVE BEEN variously described as an "American socialism," a "communistic society," a "utopian community," and a "utopian sect." 1 Yet, it might just as well be argued that they were merely a religious refuge, sociologically little different from Catholic monasteries and nunneries that operate children's schools as part of their holy work, distinguished merely by the lack of an appropriate denominational affiliation.2 Nineteenth-century Shaker publications stress millenarian and communal doctrines, and simple communism arose spontaneously as the original communities coalesced.3 However, possession of a radical ideology does not disqualify Shaker colonies from acting primarily as retreats or refuges for even the majority of members.Studying the Shakers, we can draw on a vast library of theology and other material they published themselves, and on a nearly equally large corpus of modern historical studies.But quantitative data have, until recently, been very scarce.The most common estimates of