Three-Dimensional Bioprinting of Lymphoid Organs: Bioinks, Vascularization Strategies and Immunological Applications

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as a transformative technology for engineering lymphoid organs, offering a promising alternative to traditional two-dimensional (2D) cultures and animal models. This technique employs biocompatible natural hydrogels and advanced printing modalities to generate architecturally complex constructs that closely replicate the human immunological microenvironment. A major advancement in this field is the integration of vascularization strategies, which enables the fabrication of thicker and more viable tissues. Bioprinted lymphoid organ models have shown substantial potential in applications such as personalized immunotherapy screening, tumour–immune interaction studies, and vaccine development. Although challenges remain in achieving full functional complexity and long-term structural stability, recent developments—including AI-assisted design and organoid-integrated bioprinting—continue to expand the capabilities of immune tissue engineering. Overall, advancements in 3D bioprinting of lymphoid organs are expected to accelerate progress in immunology research, personalized immunotherapies, and human-relevant disease modelling.