Three-dimensional-printed anatomical models for surgical planning and education in orthopaedics: A scoping review and evidence-gap map

This Open Science Framework project pre-specifies the protocol for a scoping review entitled “Three-dimensional-printed anatomical models for surgical planning and education in orthopaedics: A scoping review and evidence-gap map.” The review will map and characterise the clinical and educational use of patient- or pathology-specific 3D-printed anatomical models in orthopaedic practice, focusing on their roles in pre-operative planning, intra-operative reference, training, simulation, and patient/learner education. We will include human studies of any design with original clinical or educational data and exclude animal, cadaveric, bench/in-vitro studies and work limited to cutting guides, custom implants, bioprinting, or purely virtual tools. MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Science Core Collection, IEEE Xplore and arXiv will be searched from inception to December 2025 without language restrictions. Title/abstract screening will use a calibrated large language model (LLM) as a high-sensitivity triage tool with predefined performance targets and an audited sample of LLM-excluded records, while all full-text decisions will be made manually. Data extraction will be performed via an LLM that auto-populates a bespoke extraction form, with every field independently verified by two reviewers. Results will be synthesised descriptively and displayed in evidence tables, bubble plots, heatmaps, and an evidence-gap map summarising study density by anatomical region, application, and outcome domain, following JBI methodology and reported in accordance with PRISMA-ScR.