Translating theory into practice : design gaps and context-sensitive frameworks for fostering nature-based experiences in urban preschools in Scotland and Malaysia

Exposure to nature-based experiences (NBE) in urban preschools is increasingly recognized as a vital antidote to children's growing disconnection from nature, often described as nature-deficit disorder. This cross-cultural study examines how NBE can be operationalized within dense urban preschool environments through comparative analysis of policy, spatial design, and pedagogical practices in Scotland and Malaysia. Drawing on a literature review, school audits guided by Biophilic Design Parameters, Leuven Involvement Scale observations, parent surveys, and teacher interviews across five study sites in Glasgow and Selangor, this study investigates how spatial affordances, educator perceptions, and climatic conditions shape children’s opportunities for nature engagement. Findings underscore teachers’ pivotal mediating role, showing that their confidence and influence in implementing structured nature-based activities consistently generated high engagement. In contrast, unstructured engagement varied substantially with spatial quality, accessibility, and familiarity. Sensory-rich landscapes and community green spaces supported the highest level of engagement, while uniform settings constrained autonomous exploration. Parent survey data indicated predominantly indoor lifestyles and limited direct nature exposure, reinforcing preschools’ essential compensatory function, particularly in Malaysia. Key barriers included extreme weather, safety concerns and restricted outdoor access. In responses, the study advances a context-sensitive NBE framework to guide future Malaysian preschool design and policy.